Radetzky's Marches Read online

  Dedication: Despite Tapas

  Helion & Company Limited

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  Published by Helion & Company 2011

  Designed and typeset by Farr out Publications, Wokingham, Berkshire

  Cover designed by Farr out Publications, Wokingham, Berkshire

  Printed by Gutenberg Press Limited, Tarxien, Malta

  Text and maps © Michael Embree 2010

  ISBN 978 1 906033 24 8

  Paperback ISBN: 9781909384392

  ePub ISBN: 9781909384736

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  A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library.

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  Dustjacket illustration: The Kaiserjäger at Pastrengo, 30 April 1848. Painting by Rudolf

  von Ottenfeld (reproduced courtesy of the Kaiserjägermuseum Innsbruck).

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  Contents

  List of Illustrations

  List of Maps

  Foreword

  Acknowledgements

  1

  Europe at the Beginning of 1848 and the Italian Dimension

  2

  Insurrection in Lombardy and Venetia

  3

  Opposing Forces 1848

  4

  Radetzky Consolidates

  5

  The Lombard Volunteers and the Invasion of the Tirol

  6

  Across the Mincio

  7

  Repulse at Santa Lucia

  8

  Rome and Naples falter as the Kingdom of Upper Italy is created

  9

  Peschiera, March–May 1848

  10

  Radetzky’s first move

  11

  Operations in Venetia, April–May 1848

  12

  The Strategic Moment

  13

  Verona or Mantua, June-July 1848

  14

  The Battle of Custoza

  15

  Volta, Milan and the First Armistice

  16

  Venice at bay, June 1848–March 1849

  17

  The Adriatic, March–August 1848

  18

  From the Salasco Armistice to its Denunciation by Carlo Alberto

  19

  The Road to Novara

  20

  The Battle of Novara and the End of the Campaign

  21

  The Siege of Venice

  22

  Aftermath

  Appendices

  I

  Order of Battle, Imperial-Royal Austrian Army in Italy, mid-March 1848

  II

  Royal Piedmontese Army Troops in the Field, March 31st 1848

  III

  Papal Army in the Field, late April/early May 1848

  IV

  Tuscan Division, early 1848

  V

  Neapolitan Expeditionary Corps, May 1848

  VI

  Order of Battle, Imperial-Royal Austrian Reserve Corps April 18th 1848

  VII

  Other Volunteer Forces in the Veneto, mid April 1848

  VIII

  Order of Battle, Royal Piedmontese Army, end of April 1848

  IX

  Order of Battle, Imperial-Royal Austrian Main Field Army and Garrisons in Italy – May 6th 1848

  X

  Dislocation of Papal Regular Army, May 16th 1848

  XI

  Tuscan Division Positions, morning, May 29th 1848

  XII

  Order of Battle, Imperial-Royal Austrian Reserve Corps, May 14th 1848

  XIII

  Order of Battle, Imperial-Royal Austrian Main Field Army, late May 1848

  XIV

  Order of Battle, Royal Piedmontese Army, July 21st 1848

  XV

  Deployment, Royal Piedmontese Army, July 22nd 1848

  XVI

  Order of Battle and Dislocation, Imperial-Royal Austrian Army in Italy, mid July 1848

  XVII

  Correspondence between General Prince Friedrich Liechtenstein and Major-General Count Charles de Menthon d’Aviernoz concerning the Action at Sona, July 23rd 1848

  XVIII

  Order of Battle, Royal Piedmontese Army, March 19th 1849

  XIX

  Order of Battle, Imperial-Royal Austrian Field Army in Italy March 19th 1849

  XX

  Imperial-Royal Austrian Army in Italy, other Troops in Lombardy and Venetia, March 1849

  XXI

  Army of the Republic of Venice, Spring 1849

  Glossary

  A Note on Sources

  Bibliography

  List of Illustrations

  Colour section

  Tosa Gate, Milan, March 1848 (Canella)

  Two Austrian Infantrymen, Italy 1848 (von Ottenfeld)

  Austrian Grenzer at Pastrengo, April 29th 1848 (von Myrbach)

  The Piedmontese Guard Grenadiers at Goito, May 30th 1848 (lithograph by Pianca)

  Austrian Wagon Train soldiers Erhard Moosbacher and Thomas Nekowetz rescuing a gun despite the loss of the gun team at Goito, May 30th 1848 (unknown artist)

  The Piedmont Brigade at Staffalo, during the series of actions around Custoza, July 24th 1848 (Ghisi)

  Lieutenant-Colonel Sunstenau with Austrian IR 54, Sommacompagna, July 24th 1848 (unknown artist)

  Austrian IR 56 at Monte Godio, Custoza, July 1848 (Puchinger)

  Radetzky and his Staff at Novara, March 23rd 1849 (Neumann)

  Archduke Albrecht at Novara, March 23rd 1849 (von Myrbach)

  The Storming of Bicocca during the Battle of Novara, March 23rd 1849 (von Myrbach)

  Night Bombardment of the Viaduct and Venice, 1849 (contemporary lithograph)

  Austrian Battery Nr. 26, facing Venice (Gerasch)

  Austrian sortie against the Viaduct, Venice, overnight July 6th 1849 (Gerasch)

  Images within the text

  Street fighting in Milan 1848 (Adam Brothers)

  The storming of the Engineer Barracks, Milan, March 21st 1848 (Margola)

  St. Mark’s Square, Venice, March 18th 1848 (contemporary lithograph)

  M. 1844 Smoothbore Percussion Musket

  M. 1844 Bersaglieri Rifled Carbine

  M. 1842 Kammerbusche Short Rifle

  M. 1842 Augustin Tubelock Smoothbore Musket

  King Carlo Alberto of Piedmont (Vernet)

  King Carlo Alberto with the Piedmontese Army, distributing the tricolour near Pavia, March 29th 1848 (Grimaldi)

  Papal Volunteers leaving Rome (Illustrated London News)

  The Bridge at Goito (unknown artist)

  Carlo Alberto and his Staff at Pastrengo, April 30th 1848 (contemporary lithograph)

  The Defence of Santa Lucia Cemetery, May 6th 1848 (Adam Brothers)

  The Piedmontese Guards Brigade at Santa Lucia, May 6th 1848 (Grimaldi)

  Piedmontese Artillery, Santa Lucia, May 6th 1848 (unknown artist)

  The Fortress of Peschiera (contemporary lithog
raph)

  Prince Ferdinando of Savoy, Duke of Genoa (contemporary lithograph)

  Austrian troops leaving Peschiera (Illustrated London News)

  Gunner Gasperi at Curtatone, reputed to have had his clothes burned off (Cenni)

  The Aosta Brigade at Goito, May 30th 1848 (Grimaldi)

  The Storming of the Villa Rotonda by IR Prohaska, June 10th 1848 (Adam Brothers)

  The Defence of Vicenza, June 10th 1848 (Cenni)

  The Action of Corona, June 18th 1848 (unknown artist)

  Force dispositions during the Siege of Mantua, mid-July 1848

  Sommacampagna, July 23rd 1848 (Adam Brothers)

  The Piedmontese Defence of Sommacampagna, July 23rd 1848 (Grimaldi)

  The Piedmontese infantry at Sommacampagna, July 24th 1848 (Grimaldi)

  Volta, July 27th 1848 (Adam Brothers)

  Cavalry Action at Volta, July 27th 1848 (Adam Brothers)

  The Action before Milan, August 4th 1848 (Adam Brothers)

  The Sortie against Mestre, October 27 1848

  Cavalry Skirmish at La Sforzesca, March 21st 1849 (contemporary lithograph)

  1st Vienna Volunteers at the Caschina Visconte, Novara, March 23rd 1849 (Adam Brothers)

  The defence of Olengo by II/Kaiser Jäger led by Major Christian Hubel, Novara, March 23rd 1849 (unknown artist)

  The Storming of Casa Farsada by II/Kaiser Jäger, Novara, March 23rd 1849 (von Myrbach)

  The Defence of Fort Marghera, Siege of Venice 1849 (late 19th Century lithograph)

  The Evacuation of Fort Marghera, May 26th 1849 (contemporary lithograph)

  The Death of Lieutenant-Colonel Rossarol, June 27th 1849 (contemporary lithograph)

  List of Maps

  With special thanks to good friends Bruce Weigle, Bruce-Bassett Powell, and Tim O’Brien for their invaluable help with the maps.

  The Italian Peninsula and Adriatic Sea 1848

  Northern Italian Theatre of Operations 1848-49

  Milan in 1848

  The Quadrilateral

  Southwest Tirol 1848

  The Rivoli Plateau 1848

  Battle of Pastrengo 1400, April 30 1848

  Battle of Santa Lucia 0930, May 6 1948

  Battle of Santa Lucia 1430, May 6 1848

  Siege of Peschiera, May 1848

  Battle of Curtatone/Montanara, May 29 1848

  Battle of Goito 1600, May 30 1848

  Cornuda and the Defence of the Piave, April 29–May 9 1848

  Cornuda and vicinity

  Operations in Western Venetia, May 20–June 10 1848

  Battle of Vicenza, June 10 1848

  Action outside Milan, August 4 1848

  Intended routes of advance, March 21 1849

  Venice Lagoon

  Fort Marghera, early May 1849

  Siege of Fort Marghera, May 1849

  The following appear in the colour section:

  Castrette, situation May 11th

  Battle of Custoza July 23 1848. Morning attacks and subsequent moves

  Battle of Custoza July 24 1848

  Battle of Custoza July 25 1848. Situation about 1700 and subsequent Piedmontese retreat

  Battle of Volta, situation about 1800, July 26 1848

  Battle of Volta, morning attacks, July 27 1848

  Battle of Mortara 1630, March 21 1849

  Battle of Novara 1100, March 23 1849

  Battle of Novara 1430, March 23 1849

  Battle of Novara 1715, March 23 1849

  Foreword

  This book focuses on the military campaigns for the control of Upper Italy during 1848 and 1849, or more specifically, Piedmont, Lombardy-Venetia, and the Tirol. Whilst there were clearly important links between the campaigns in Upper Italy and others in the rest of the Italian Peninsula, and indeed events throughout Europe, these will only be discussed in detail where they directly relate to these military campaigns.

  In a letter to an Austrian diplomat in 1847, Prince Metternich, the Chancellor of the Austrian Empire, described Italy as a “geographical expression”. Subsequent events would prove the great statesman wrong. It would, indeed, prove that mid nineteenth century nationalism would eventually succeed, not only in Italy, but all over the continent. Whether, after the horrors of the 20th Century which flowed from it, this was a positive asset is perhaps at least arguable.

  I have chosen to use names for place and geographical features which are, where possible, familiar to the English speaking reader. This may mean that they are unfamiliar or even comical to others. This decision, right or wrong, I made for clarity and consistency. Where there is not a commonly used English version, place and feature names reflect modern rather than contemporary borders. To avoid any possible confusion my aim has been to use only one name for any settlement or geographical feature. Should this decision offend any readers, my apology is here offered. There will certainly be instances where wrong, archaic, or local spellings are used, especially in an age before generally accepted written place-names existed.

  This book is intended for the English speaking reader. Should it add any knowledge or interest at all to a wider audience, it will be a great bonus.

  Any errors or omissions of any kind are, of course, my responsibility.

  Acknowledgements

  Stephen Allen, Renzo Barbieri, Bruce Bassett-Powell, Chris Bauermeister, Davide Bedin, Maurizio Bragaglia, Andrew Brentnall, Mrs. Elisabeth Briefer, Jean-Claude Brunner, Luigi Casali, Stefano Chiaromanni, Michael Gandt, Antonio Gatti, Alessandro Gazzi, Tom Hill, Eamon Honan, Glenn Jewison, Jean-Marc Largeaud, Arturo Lorioli, Tim O’Brien, Stuart Penhall, Marco Pertoni, Mogens Rye, Ernesto Salerani, Jan Schlürmann, John ‘Eric’ Starnes, Bruce Weigle, Marco Zaccardi, Andrea Zanini, and of course, Sally and Kathryn, who once again, put up with all of this.

  1

  Europe at the Beginning of 1848 and the Italian Dimension

  The Long Peace

  The end of the Napoleonic Wars in 1815 had convinced virtually all European statesmen that another similar hideous string of conflicts must never again be allowed to occur. It had particularly influenced Prince Metternich, the Austrian Chancellor, who would dominate the continent for over 30 years. With his British counterpart, Lord Castlereagh, he worked to establish a permanent alliance which would balance any ambitions by a single power, so ensuring peace. The resulting Quadruple Alliance of Russia, Prussia, Austria, and Great Britain lasted until 1822, when Castlereagh committed suicide, and Britain pulled out.

  Liberalism and nationalism, the two major forces of the 19th Century, were anathema to Metternich, as they represented the misery and chaos of the French Revolution, and Empire. He watched with horror German university student demonstrations, which encapsulated both forces. Indeed, the excesses of revolutionary movements were brought forcibly home to him in 1819, when a playwright with conservative views, August von Kotzbue, was murdered in Russia, by a student, Karl Ludwig Sand. Sand was subsequently executed by the Tsarist authorities.

  This affair had considerable consequences, as, at a conference held in the Bohemian town of Carlsbad that same year, the German Diet passed the so-called Carlsbad Decrees. These provided for strict press censorship throughout the German Confederation, and also for much closer supervision of universities. To many, Metternich was becoming reaction incarnate. In the internal affairs of the Empire, he had less success in influencing matters, especially after the death of his mentor, Franz I, in 1835. His successor, Ferdinand I, was severely epileptic. The Minister of Finance, Count Franz Anton von Kolowrat-Liebsteinsky, managed to use the absence of Franz to ensure that Metternich restrict himself to diplomacy.

  Strife did not simply vanish in Europe between 1815 and 1848. There were conflicts involving Poland, Spain, Portugal, Belgium, and Italy during the period. Apart from Poland in 1830-31, these were not on a large scale, nor did they spread to encompass other states. All this would change in 1848.

  By then, 74 year old Metternich had effectively held the lid on liberal and nati
onalist forces since Waterloo. Now, those forces were finally moving beyond his control. However, events would prove that they were by no means necessarily complementary.

  When Paris Sneezes, Europe Catches a Cold1

  In a poor economic state, France, like most of the continent, had been badly affected by the disastrous famine of 1846. King Louis Philippe unwittingly combined this disaster with government policies which were increasingly disenfranchising the lower classes in favour of land owners, thus creating a wave of discontent throughout the country. Since political demonstrations were forbidden, a series of banquets were held, from the summer of 1847, at which criticism of the authorities was routinely made. Matters came to a head when the Government, in February 1848, banned such gatherings. At the same time, a section of his own Party, led by Adolphe Thiers, turned against the King

  News of this caused some barricades to be erected in Paris, and some limited rioting took place. On February 23rd, the Prime Minister, François Guizot, resigned. As news of this spread, crowds gathered outside the Foreign Ministry. Troops positioned there, probably as a result of a mistake, opened fire, killing 52 people. This was the signal for barricades to rise all over the city, as people made their way to the Royal Palace.

  Fortunately for all concerned, Louis Philippe had no intention of fighting, and fled with his wife to England, where he died in 1850. After giving brief consideration to placing his grandson on the throne, on February 26th, the opposition parties declared the existence of a Second Republic. Paris had sneezed.

  Europe in March 1848

  Throughout the continent, movements for political change were taking to the streets in the wake of the fall of Louis Philippe. A dangerous and contradictory fusion of nationalism and liberalism was challenging the established order. The revolution in Paris sent political and social shock waves through the other capitals of the continent. Demonstrations, riots, revolutions, and wars resulted, affecting almost every country.